From: Subject: V.83 No.10 Pages 758-765/June 2002: Stiggins Date: Fri, 10 Aug 2007 14:30:00 -0400 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C7DB5A.EF1A5B50" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3138 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C7DB5A.EF1A5B50 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.pdkintl.org/kappan/k0206sti.htm V.83 No.10 Pages 758-765/June 2002: Stiggins



Assessment Crisis: The Absence Of = Assessment=20 FOR Learning

 

If we wish to maximize student achievement in the = U.S., we=20 must pay far greater attention to the improvement of classroom = assessment,=20 Mr. Stiggins warns. Both assessment of learning and assessment for = learning are essential. But one is currently in place, and the = other is=20 not.

By Richard J. Stiggins =

A real voyage of discovery consists not of = seeking new=20 landscapes but of seeing through new eyes.

-- Marcel Proust=20

 

IF WE ARE finally to connect assessment to school improvement in = meaningful=20 ways, we must come to see assessment through new eyes. Our failure to = find a=20 potent connection has resulted in a deep and intensifying crisis in = assessment=20 in American education. Few elected officials are aware of this crisis, = and=20 almost no school officials know how to address it. Our current = assessment=20 systems are harming huge numbers of students for reasons that few = understand.=20 And that harm arises directly from our failure to balance our use of=20 standardized tests and classroom assessments in the service of school=20 improvement. When it comes to assessment, we have been trying to find = answers to=20 the wrong questions.

Politicians routinely ask, How can we use assessment as the basis for = doling=20 out rewards and punishments to increase teacher and student effort? They = want to=20 know how we can intensify the intimidation associated with annual = testing so as=20 to force greater achievement. How we answer these questions will = certainly=20 affect schools. But that impact will not always be positive. Moreover,=20 politicians who ask such questions typically look past a far more = important pair=20 of prior questions: How can we use assessment to help all our students=20 want to learn? How can we help them feel able to = learn?=20 Without answers to these questions, there will be no school improvement. = I=20 explain why below.

School administrators in federal, state, and local education agencies = contribute to our increasingly damaging assessment crisis when they = merely bow=20 to politicians' beliefs and focus unwaveringly on the question of how to = make=20 our test scores go up. To be sure, accountability for student learning = is=20 important. I am not opposed to high-stakes testing to verify school = quality --=20 as long as the tests are of sound quality.1 However, our = concern=20 for test scores must be preceded by a consideration of more fundamental=20 questions: Are our current approaches to assessment improving student = learning?=20 Might other approaches to assessment have a greater impact? Can we = design state=20 and district assessment systems that have the effect of helping our = students=20 want to learn and feel able to learn?

Furthermore, the measurement community, of which I am a member, also = has=20 missed an essential point. For decades, our priorities have manifested = the=20 belief that our job is to discover ever more sophisticated and efficient = ways of=20 generating valid and reliable test scores. Again, to be sure, accurate = scores=20 are essential. But there remains an unasked prior question: How can we = maximize=20 the positive impact of our scores on learners? Put another way, How can = we be=20 sure that our assessment instruments, procedures, and scores serve to = help=20 learners want to learn and feel able to learn?

We are a nation obsessed with the belief that the path to school = improvement=20 is paved with better, more frequent, and more intense standardized = testing. The=20 problem is that such tests, ostensibly developed to "leave no student = behind,"=20 are in fact causing major segments of our student population to be left = behind=20 because the tests cause many to give up in hopelessness -- just the = opposite=20 effect from that which politicians intended.

Student achievement suffers because these once-a-year tests are = incapable of=20 providing teachers with the moment-to-moment and day-to-day information = about=20 student achievement that they need to make crucial instructional = decisions.=20 Teachers must rely on classroom assessment to do this. The problem is = that=20 teachers are unable to gather or effectively use dependable information = on=20 student achievement each day because of the drain of resources for = excessive=20 standardized testing. There are no resources left to train teachers to = create=20 and conduct appropriate classroom assessments. For the same reasons, = district=20 and building administrators have not been trained to build assessment = systems=20 that balance standardized tests and classroom assessments. As a direct = result of=20 these chronic, long-standing problems, our classroom, building, = district, state,=20 and national assessment systems remain in constant crisis, and students = suffer=20 the consequences. All school practitioners know this, yet almost no = politicians=20 do.

We know how to build healthy assessment environments that can meet = the=20 information needs of all instructional decision makers, help students = want to=20 learn and feel able to learn, and thus support unprecedented increases = in=20 student achievement. But to achieve this goal, we must put in place the=20 mechanisms that will make healthy assessment possible. Creating those = mechanisms=20 will require that we begin to see assessment through new eyes. The = well-being of=20 our students depends on our willingness to do so.

The Evolution of Our Vision of Excellence in = Assessment

The evolution of assessment in the United States over the past five = decades=20 has led to the strongly held view that school improvement = requires:

  • the articulation of higher achievement standards,=20
  • the transformation of those expectations into rigorous = assessments,=20 and=20
  • the expectation of accountability on the part of educators = for=20 student achievement, as reflected in test scores.

    • Standards frame accepted or valued definitions of academic success.=20 Accountability compels attention to these standards as educators plan = and=20 deliver instruction in the classroom. Assessment provides the evidence = of=20 success on the part of students, teachers, and the system.

    To maximize the energy devoted to school improvement, we have "raised = the=20 bar" by setting world-class standards for student achievement, as = opposed to=20 minimum competencies. To further intensify the impact of our standards = and=20 assessments, policy makers often attach the promise of rewards for = schools that=20 produce high scores and sanctions for schools that do not.

    In this context, we rely on high-stakes assessments of = learning to=20 inform our decisions about accountability. These tests tell us how much = students=20 have learned, whether standards are being met, and whether educators = have done=20 the job they were hired to do.

    Such assessments of learning have been the norm throughout the U.S. = for=20 decades. We began with standardized college admissions tests in the = early=20 decades of the last century, and this use of testing continues = essentially=20 unchanged today. But these tests are not used merely for college = admission. For=20 decades, we have ranked states according to average SAT scores.

    Meanwhile, in response to demands for accountability in public = schools in the=20 1960s, we launched districtwide standardized testing programs that also = remain=20 in place today. In the 1970s, we began the broad implementation of = statewide=20 testing programs, and these programs have spread throughout the land. = Also in=20 the 1970s and extending into the 1980s, we added a national assessment = program=20 that continues to this day. During the 1990s, we became deeply involved = and=20 invested in international assessment programs. Across the nation, across = the=20 various levels of schooling, and over the decades, we have invested = billions of=20 dollars to ensure the accuracy of the scores on these assessments of = learning.=20 Now in 2002, President Bush has signed a school reform measure that = requires=20 standardized testing of every pupil in the U.S. in mathematics and = reading every=20 year in grades 3 through 8, once again revealing our faith in assessment = as a=20 tool for school improvement.

    In the context of school improvement, we have seen assessment merely = as an=20 index of the success of our efforts. It is testimony to our societal = belief in=20 the power of standardized tests that we would permit so many levels of = testing=20 to remain in place, all at the same time and at very high cost. Clearly, = over=20 the decades, we have believed that by checking achievement status and = reporting=20 the results to the public we can apply the pressure needed to intensify = -- and=20 thus speed -- school improvement. At the same time, we have believed = that=20 providing policy makers and practicing educators with test results can = inform=20 the critically important school improvement decisions that are made at = district,=20 state, and federal levels.

    The Flaw in the Vision

    The assessment environment described above is a direct manifestation = of a set=20 of societal beliefs about what role assessment ought to play in American = schools. Over the decades, we have succeeded in carrying these beliefs = to=20 unfortunate extremes.

    For example, we have believed that assessment should serve two = purposes:=20 inform decisions and motivate learning. With respect to the former, we = have=20 built our assessment systems around the belief that the most important = decisions=20 are made by those program planners and policy makers whose actions = affect the=20 broadest range of classrooms and students. The broader the reach of the = decision=20 makers (across an entire school district or state), the more weight we = have=20 given to meeting their information needs first. This is the foundation = of our=20 strong belief in the power of standardized tests. These are the tests = that=20 provide comparable data that can be aggregated across schools, = districts, and=20 states to inform far-reaching programmatic decisions.

    With respect to the use of assessment to motivate, we all grew up in=20 classrooms in which our teachers believed that the way to maximize = learning was=20 to maximize anxiety, and assessment has always been the great = intimidator.=20 Because of their own very successful experiences in ascending to = positions of=20 leadership and authority, most policy makers and school leaders share = the world=20 view that, "when the going gets tough, the tough get going." They = learned that=20 the way to succeed when confronted with a tougher challenge is to = redouble your=20 efforts -- work harder and work smarter. If you do so, you win. And so, = they=20 contend, the way to cause students to learn more -- and thus the way to = improve=20 schools -- is to confront them with a tougher challenge. This will cause = them to=20 redouble their efforts, they will learn more, their test scores will go = up, and=20 the schools will become more effective. We can motivate students to = greater=20 effort, they believe, by "setting higher academic standards," "raising = the bar,"=20 and implementing more high-stakes testing. This is the foundation of our = belief=20 in the power of accountability-oriented standardized tests to drive = school=20 improvement.

    In point of fact, when some students are confronted with the tougher=20 challenge of high-stakes testing, they do redouble their efforts, and = they do=20 learn more than they would have without the added incentive. Please = note,=20 however, that I said this is true for "some students."

    Another huge segment of our student population, when confronted with = an even=20 tougher challenge than the one that it has already been failing at, will = not=20 redouble its efforts -- a point that most people are missing. These = students=20 will see both the new high standards and the demand for higher test = scores as=20 unattainable for them, and they will give up in = hopelessness.

    Many political and school leaders have never experienced the painful, = embarrassing, and discouraging trauma of chronic and public academic = failure. As=20 a result, they have no way of anticipating or understanding how their=20 high-stakes testing program, whether local or statewide, could lead to = even=20 greater failure for large numbers of students. But tapping the = intimidation=20 power of standardized tests for public accountability has an effect on = the=20 success of this segment of the student population that is exactly the = opposite=20 of what we intend.

    Thus it is folly to build our assessment environments on the = assumption that=20 standardized testing will have the same effect on all students. It will = not.=20 Some students approach the tests with a strong personal academic history = and an=20 expectation of success. Others approach them with a personal history and = expectation of very painful failure. Some come to slay the dragon, while = others=20 expect to be devoured by it. As a result, high-stakes assessment will = enhance=20 the learning of some while discouraging others and causing them to give = up. Yet,=20 as they attempt to weave assessment into the school improvement = equation,=20 federal, state, and local policy makers seem unable to understand or to=20 accommodate this difference.

    A More Powerful Vision

    There is another way in which assessment can contribute to the = development of=20 effective schools that has been largely ignored in the evolution of the=20 standards, assessment, and accountability movement described above. We = can also=20 use assessments for learning.2 If = assessments of=20 learning provide evidence of achievement for public reporting, then = assessments for learning serve to help students learn more. The = crucial=20 distinction is between assessment to determine the status of learning = and=20 assessment to promote greater learning.

    Assessments of and for learning are both important. = Since=20 we in the U.S. already have many assessments of learning in = place, if=20 we are to balance the two, we must make a much stronger investment in = assessment=20 for learning. We can realize unprecedented gains in achievement = if we=20 turn the current day-to-day classroom assessment process into a more = powerful=20 tool for learning. We know that schools will be held accountable for = raising=20 test scores. Now we must provide teachers with the assessment tools = needed to do=20 the job.

    It is tempting to equate the idea of assessment for learning = with=20 our more common term, "formative assessment." But they are not the same. = Assessment for learning is about far more than testing more = frequently=20 or providing teachers with evidence so that they can revise instruction, = although these steps are part of it. In addition, we now understand that = assessment for learning must involve students in the = process.

    When they assess for learning, teachers use the classroom = assessment=20 process and the continuous flow of information about student achievement = that it=20 provides in order to advance, not merely check on, student learning. = They do=20 this by:

    In short, the effect of assessment for learning, as it plays = out in=20 the classroom, is that students keep learning and remain confident that = they can=20 continue to learn at productive levels if they keep trying to learn. In = other=20 words, students don't give up in frustration or hopelessness.

    Are Teachers Ready?

    Few teachers are prepared to face the challenges of classroom = assessment=20 because they have not been given the opportunity to learn to do so. It = is=20 currently the case that only about a dozen states explicitly require = competence=20 in assessment as a condition to be licensed to teach. Moreover, there is = no=20 licensing examination in place at the state or federal level in the U.S. = that=20 verifies competence in assessment. Thus teacher preparation programs = have taken=20 little note of competence in assessment, and the vast majority of = programs fail=20 to provide the assessment literacy required to enable teachers to engage = in=20 assessment for learning. It has been so for decades.

    Furthermore, lest we believe that teachers can turn to their = principals for=20 help, it is currently the case that almost no states require competence = in=20 assessment as a condition to be licensed as a principal or school = administrator=20 at any level. Consequently, assessment training is almost nonexistent in = administrator training programs. It has been so for decades.

    Thus we remain a national faculty that is unschooled in the = principles of=20 sound assessment -- whether assessment of or for = learning.=20 This fact has been a matter of record for decades. To date, as a nation, = we have=20 invested almost nothing in assessment for learning. Teachers = rarely=20 have the opportunity to learn how to use assessment as a teaching and = learning=20 tool. And our vigorous efforts to assess learning through our various = layers of=20 standardized tests cannot overcome the effects of this reality.

    As a result of this state of affairs, we face the danger that student = progress may be mismeasured, day to day, in classrooms across the = nation. That=20 means that all the critically important day-to-day instructional = decisions made=20 by students, teachers, and parents may be based on misinformation about = student=20 success. The result is the misdiagnosis of student needs, students'=20 misunderstanding of their own ability to learn, miscommunication to = parents and=20 others about student progress, and virtually no effective assessment = for=20 learning in classrooms. The extremely harmful consequences for = student=20 learning are obvious.

    Relevant Position Statements

    The dire consequences of this assessment crisis and the urgent need = for=20 action have not gone unnoticed. For example, during the 1990s, virtually = every=20 professional association that had anything to do with teaching adopted = standards=20 of professional competence for teachers that include an assessment = component.3 This=20 group included the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), the National = Education=20 Association (NEA), the Council of Chief State School Officers, the = National=20 Board for Professional Teaching Standards, and the National Council on=20 Measurement in Education (NCME).

    The documents that were issued included a collaborative statement of=20 assessment competencies for teachers developed by a joint committee = representing=20 AFT, NEA, and NCME.4 In addition = to other=20 standards, this joint statement expects teachers to be trained to choose = and=20 develop proper assessment methods; to administer, score, and interpret=20 assessment results; to connect those results to specific decisions; to = assign=20 grades appropriately; and to communicate effectively about student = achievement.=20 It is troubling to realize that these standards are more than a decade = old and=20 still have had little impact on the preparation of teachers and=20 administrators.

    In its 2001 report, the Committee on the Foundations of Assessment of = the=20 National Research Council advanced recommendations for the development = of=20 assessment in American schools that included the following:

     

    Recommendation 9: Instruction in how students = learn and=20 how learning can be assessed should be a major component of teacher = preservice=20 and professional development programs. = This training=20 should be linked to actual experience in classrooms in assessing and=20 interpreting the development of student competence. To ensure that = this=20 occurs, state and national standards for teacher licensure and program = accreditation should include specific requirements focused on the = proper=20 integration of learning and assessment in teachers' educational=20 experience.5

    * * *

    Recommendation 11: The balance of mandates and = resources=20 should be shifted from an emphasis on external forms of assessment to = an=20 increased emphasis on classroom formative assessment designed to = assist=20 learning.6

     

    Similarly, the Commission on Instructionally Supportive Assessment = convened=20 by the American Association of School Administrators, the National = Association=20 of Elementary School Principals, the National Association of Secondary = School=20 Principals, the NEA, and the National Middle School Association included = the=20 following in its list of nine requirements for state-mandated = accountability=20 tests:

     

    Requirement 8: A state must ensure that = educators receive=20 professional development focused on how to optimize children's = learning based=20 on the results of instructionally supportive assessment.7

     

    We understand what teachers need to know and the proficiencies that = they need=20 to develop in order to be able to establish and maintain productive = assessment=20 environments. The challenge we face is to provide the opportunity for = teachers=20 to master those essential classroom assessment competencies. The depth = of this=20 challenge becomes clear when we realize that we must provide = opportunities both=20 for new teachers to gain these competencies before they enter the = classroom and=20 for experienced teachers who had no chance to master them during their = training=20 to gain them as well.

    Balancing Assessments of and for=20 Learning

    Therefore, our national assessment priority should be to make certain = that=20 assessments both of and for learning are accurate in = their=20 depiction of student achievement and are used to benefit students. Since = our=20 standardized assessments of learning have been developed by=20 professionals and are currently in place, they are poised to detect any=20 improvements in the level or rate of student achievement.

    But these tests provide information only once a year, and we must not = delude=20 ourselves into believing that they can serve all assessment purposes. = They can=20 reflect large-group increases or decreases in learning on an annual = basis, and=20 they can serve as gatekeepers for high-stakes decisions. They cannot = inform the=20 moment-to-moment, day-to-day, and week-to-week instructional decisions = faced by=20 students and teachers seeking to manage the learning process as it = unfolds. They=20 cannot diagnose student needs during learning, tell students what study = tactics=20 are or are not working, or keep parents informed about how to support = the work=20 of their children. These kinds of uses require assessments for=20 learning. The critical question for school improvement is, What = would=20 happen to standardized test scores if we brought assessments for=20 learning online as a full partner in support of student learning? = Several=20 published reviews of research reveal the startling and very encouraging=20 answer.

    In 1984 Benjamin Bloom provided a summary of research comparing = standard=20 whole-class instruction (the control condition) with two experimental=20 interventions, a mastery learning environment and one-on-one tutoring of = individual students. One hallmark of both experimental conditions was = the=20 extensive use of classroom assessment for learning as a key = part of the=20 instructional process. The analyses revealed differences ranging from = one to two=20 standard deviations in student achievement attributable to differences = between=20 experimental and control conditions.8

    In their 1998 research review, Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam examined = the=20 research literature on assessment worldwide, asking if improved = formative (i.e.,=20 classroom) assessments yield higher student achievement as reflected in=20 summative assessments. If so, they asked, what kinds of improvements in=20 classroom assessment practice are likely to yield the greatest gains in=20 achievement?

    Black and Wiliam uncovered and then synthesized more than 250 = articles that=20 addressed these issues. Of these, several dozen directly addressed the = question=20 of the impact on student learning with sufficient scientific rigor and=20 experimental control to permit firm conclusions. Upon pooling the = information on=20 the estimated effects of improved formative assessment on summative test = scores,=20 they reported unprecedented positive effects on student achievement. = They=20 reported effect sizes of one-half to a full standard deviation. = Furthermore,=20 Black and Wiliam reported that "improved formative assessment helps low=20 achievers more than other students and so reduces the range of = achievement while=20 raising achievement overall."9 This result = has direct=20 implications for districts seeking to reduce achievement gaps between = minorities=20 and other students. Hypothetically, if assessment for learning, = as=20 described above, became standard practice only in classrooms of = low-achieving,=20 low-socioeconomic-status students, the achievement gaps that trouble us = so=20 deeply today would be erased. I know of no other school improvement = innovation=20 that can claim effects of this nature or size.

    To fully appreciate the magnitude of the effect sizes cited above, = readers=20 need to understand that a gain of one standard deviation, applied to the = middle=20 of the test score distribution on commonly used standardized achievement = tests,=20 can yield average gains of more than 30 percentile points, two=20 grade-equivalents, or 100 points on the SAT scale. Black and Wiliam = report that=20 gains of this magnitude, if applied to the most recent results of the = Third=20 International Mathematics and Science Study, would have raised a nation = in the=20 middle of the pack among the 42 participating countries (where the U.S. = is=20 ranked) to the top five.

    This research reveals that these achievement gains are maximized in = contexts=20 where educators increase the accuracy of classroom assessments, provide = students=20 with frequent informative feedback (versus infrequent judgmental = feedback), and=20 involve students deeply in the classroom assessment, record keeping, and = communication processes. In short, these gains are maximized where = teachers=20 apply the principles of assessment for learning.

    Black and Wiliam conclude their summary of self-assessment by = students as=20 follows:

    Thus self-assessment by pupils, far from being a = luxury, is=20 in fact an essential component of formative assessment. When = anyone=20 is trying to learn, feedback about the effort has three elements: = redefinition=20 of the desired goal, evidence about present = position, and=20 some understanding of a way to close the gap between the two. = All=20 three must be understood to some degree by anyone before he or she can = take=20 action to improve learning.10 = (Emphasis in=20 original.)

     

    Anticipating the Benefits of Balance

    Students benefit from assessment for learning in several = critical=20 ways. First, they become more confident learners because they get to = watch=20 themselves succeeding. This success permits them to take the risk of = continuing=20 to try to learn. The result is greater achievement for all students --=20 especially low achievers, which helps reduce the achievement gap between = middle-class and low-socioeconomic-status students. Furthermore, = students come=20 to understand what it means to be in charge of their own learning -- to = monitor=20 their own success and make decisions that bring greater success. This is = the=20 foundation of lifelong learning.

    Teachers benefit because their students become more motivated to = learn.=20 Furthermore, their instructional decisions are informed by more accurate = information about student achievement. Teachers also benefit from the = savings in=20 time that result from their ability to develop and use classroom = assessments=20 more efficiently.

    Parents benefit as well in seeing higher achievement and greater = enthusiasm=20 for learning in their children. They also come to understand that their = children=20 are learning to manage their own lifelong learning.

    School administrators and instructional leaders benefit from the = reality of=20 meeting accountability standards and from the public recognition of = doing so.=20 Political officials benefit in the same way. When schools work more = effectively,=20 both political leaders and school leaders are recognized as contributing = to that=20 outcome.

    In short, everyone wins. There are no losers. But the price that we = must pay=20 to achieve such benefits is an investment in teachers and their = classroom=20 assessment practices. We must initiate a program of professional = development=20 specifically designed to give teachers the expertise they need to assess = for=20 learning.

    An Action Plan

    If we wish to maximize student achievement in the U.S., we must pay = far=20 greater attention to the improvement of classroom assessment. Both = assessment=20 of learning and assessment for learning are essential. = One is=20 in place; the other is not. Therefore, we must:

    • match every dollar invested in instruments and procedures intended = for=20 assessment of learning at national, state, and local levels = with=20 another dollar devoted to the development of assessment for = learning;=20
    • launch a comprehensive, long-term professional development program = at the=20 national, state, and local levels to foster literacy in classroom = assessment=20 for teachers, allocating sufficient resources to provide them with the = opportunity to learn and grow professionally;=20
    • launch a similar professional development program in effective = large-scale=20 and classroom assessment for state, district, and building = administrators,=20 teaching them how to provide leadership in this area of professional = practice;=20
    • change teacher and administrator licensing standards in every = state and in=20 all national certification contexts to reflect an expectation of = competence in=20 assessment both of and for learning; and=20
    • require all teacher and administrator preparation programs to = ensure that=20 graduates are assessment literate -- in terms both of promoting and of = documenting student learning.

    Federal education officials, state policy makers, and local school = leaders=20 must allocate resources in equal proportions to ensure the accuracy and=20 effective use of assessments both of and for learning. = Only=20 then can we reassure families that their children are free from the harm = that=20 results from the mismeasurement of their achievement in schools. Only = then can=20 we maximize students' confidence in themselves as learners. Only then = can we=20 raise achievement levels for all students and "leave no child = behind."

    1. For=20 specific standards of quality, refer to Commission on Instructionally = Supportive=20 Assessment, Building Tests to Support Instruction and = Accountability=20 (Washington, D.C.: AASA, NAESP, NASSP, NEA, and NMSA, 2001).

    2.=20 This term was coined by Assessment Reform Group, Assessment for = Learning:=20 Beyond the Black Box (Cambridge: School of Education, Cambridge = University,=20 1999).

    3.=20 See the special section on Quality Teaching for the 21st Century in the = November=20 1996 Phi Delta Kappan, pp. 190-227.

    4.=20 American Federation of Teachers, National Council on Measurement in = Education,=20 and National Education Association, "Standards for Teacher Competence in = Educational Assessment of Students," Educational Measurement: Issues = and=20 Practice, vol. 9, no. 4, 1990, pp. 30-32.

    5.=20 James W. Pellegrino, Naomi Chudowsky, and Robert Glaser, eds., = Knowing What=20 Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment=20 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2001), p. 14.

    6.=20 Ibid.

    7.=20 Commission on Instructionally Supportive Assessment, p. 25.

    8.=20 Benjamin Bloom, "The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as = Effective as=20 One-on-One Tutoring," Educational Leadership, May 1984, pp. = 4-17.

    9.=20 Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam, "Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards = Through=20 Classroom Assessment," Phi Delta Kappan, October 1998, p. 141. = Their=20 work is reported in more detail in idem, "Assessment and Classroom = Learning,"=20 Assessment in Education, March 1998, pp. 7-74.

    10. Black = and Wiliam,=20 "Inside the Black Box," p. 143.

    RICHARD J. STIGGINS is president of Assessment Training Institute, = Inc.,=20 Portland, Ore.



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    URL:=20 http://www.pdkintl.org/kappan/k0206sti.htm
    Copyright 2002 Phi Delta Kappa International=20

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